Directive 2000/54/EC and the strategy of measuring biological agents at a workplace Jacek Dutkiewicz Biohazards: standards, guidelines, and proposals for threshold limit values Rafał L. Górny Occupational exposure to biological agents – a study on knowledge of the exposed workers Katarzyna Zielińska-Jankiewicz, Anna Kozajda Personal protective equipment Witold Gacek, Katarzyna Majchrzycka Occupational risk to bacteria of genus Legionella Nimfa Maria Stojek Hydrogen bromide Konrad Rydzyński, Ewa Kuchowicz 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak 1,4-Dichlorobenzene Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak

Directive 2000/54/EC and the strategy of measuring biological agents at a workplace
Jacek Dutkiewicz

Directive 2000/54/EC of the European Union, currently enforced in the Polish legislation system, is important for preventing diseases caused by biological agents in people in various occupations. To increasing the efficacy of prevention measures, it is highly desirable to amend this Directive, on the basis of an update of the definition, list, and classification of biological agents in accordance with the requirements of modern science and specification of the mode of exposure measurements. In future, the Directive should include very significant biological agents with allergenic and/or toxic properties, and ectoparasites, which are omitted in the present edition. In risk assessment, the existing four risk groups (1-4) should be replaced with five groups (0-4).
The provisions of Articles 3 and 6 of Directive 2000/54/EC oblige the employer to assess the risk of exposure to biological agents but no recommendations are given concerning the mode of the assessment and measurement of that exposure. It is widely known that for the assessement of the risk of exposure to biological agents the results of measurements of the concentration of bacteria, fungi and bacterial endotoxin in workplace air are most important. Measurements should follow the recommendations given in European Standards EN 13098 and EN 14031. These recommendations should be supplemented in the future with occupational exposure limit values for the abovementioned biological agents in specific work environments.
At taking a decision on performing measurements of biological agents at the workplace and their scope, the degree of risk, determined on the basis of an interview and a visit to the workplace, should be considered. Measurements should also be performed if there are diseases or workrelated symptoms which could be caused by biological agents. Similarly, measurements should also be performed if in the course of periodic medical examinations of workers abnormalities which could be caused by biological agents are detected.

Biohazards: standards, guidelines, and proposals for threshold limit values
Rafał L. Górny

Exposure to biological agents very often leads to adverse health effects in susceptible individuals. Development of values for biologically derived airborne contaminants seems to be necessary to prevent harmful exposure in occupational and nonoccupational environments, to ensure reliability of measurement methods and proper interpretation of the results.
This paper presents an overview of existing quantitative standards and guidelines for biological agents such as bacteria, fungi, substances derived from microorganisms (endotoxins, subtilisins), animal (mite, cat and dog) allergens, for special environments such as hospitals and related facilities, as well as for microbial contamination of surface in indoor spaces where high air quality is required.
This article describes limitations of the available recommendations and discusses decision making and data interpretation issues without limit values for bioaerosols. Moreover, a special emphasis is placed in the paper on existing quantitative Polish standards and proposals for occupational exposure limits and reference limit values for work and other indoor environments.

Occupational exposure to biological agents – a study on knowledge of the exposed workers
Katarzyna Zielińska-Jankiewicz, Anna Kozajda

Exposure to biological agents at work may become a serious health hazard to the exposed workers.
The aim of the study was to assess knowledge of biological hazards present in the work environment, related health risks and health protection against biological exposure at work among workers of some selected occupational categories. A population of 150 workers, employed in hospitals, a municipal wastewater treatment plant and a waste dump and in forestry, was interviewed via (using) a specially developed questionnaire. Each group comprised 50 workers.
The general level of workers` knowledge of occupational biological agents and their health effect on humans (i.g. the ways they may influence human organisms, diseases induced by occupational exposure to biohazards and their symptoms) is rather limited in the study groups.
Personal protective measures, prophylactic vaccinations and compliance with principles of personal hygiene were considered to be the most effective ways of health protection against exposure to biological agents at work. At the same time those means and ways of health protection were most often used in everyday practice by the majority of exposed workers.
About 66 per cent of the studied population stated their knowledge of occupational exposure to biohazards and related health risks was too limited and they would like to widen it for better health protection at work.

Personal protective equipment
Witold Gacek, Katarzyna Majchrzycka

Occupational risk reduction and protection of employees against hazardous biological agents present in the working environment, especially in agriculture, the food industry, waste disposal, sewage treatment and medicine are a serious problem.
Basic information about the requirements for personal protective equipment applied against biological agents, are presented in this paper.

Occupational risk to bacteria of genus Legionella
Nimfa Maria Stojek

The bacteria of genus Legionella are commonly present in the environment, especially in humid conditions. To date 42 species have been identifid of which Legionella pneumophila is the most frequent cause of diseases (1).
Infections take place through the airways by inhalation of droplet aerosols from water or dust. The risk of infection is increased by high humidity of the air.
Legionellosis may occur as a pneumonia with mortality of about 20%, or as a much milder flulike illness called Pontiac fever.

Hydrogen bromide
Konrad Rydzyński, Ewa Kuchowicz

Hydrogen bromide is a eolorless, eorrosive, nonflammable gas with an aerid odor. An odor threshold of 6 mg/m³  has been reported. Hydrogen bromide gas and hydrobromie aeid may be used in organie synthesis, for dissolving eertain ores, in the manufaeture of bromides, and as an alkylation eatalyst. Aeute toxieity data indieate that hydro gen bromide, with a 60-minute LC₅₀ of 9240 mg/m³  was somewhat more toxic to the rat than hydro gen ehloride.
The Intersectoral Commission considers hydro gen bromide a primary irritant and believes that primary irritants with no known chronic effects should have Ceilings rather than MAC(TWA) and MAC(STEL) values. Therefore, a Ceiling of 6,5 mg/m³  is recommended for hydro gen bromide, based on the results of controlled exposures of human volunteers. It is anticipated that maintenance of workplace air concentrations below the Ceiling should minimize even transient irritation and eomplaints. There is no implication that brief, small excursions above the 9,9 mg/m³  ceiling are lifethreatening or have the potential for creating permanent harm. Sufficient data were available to recommend "I" notation.

1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak

1,2-Dichlorobenzene is a colorless to pale yellow liquid with a pleasant aromatic odor. 1,2-Dichlorobenzene is mainly used as an intermediate in the syntheses of organic compounds, such as 3,4-dichloroaniline, and in the syntheses of herbicides. It is used as an industrial solvent, a degreasing agent, a heat-exchange medium, a deodorant for garbage and sewage, an engine cleaner, and an intermediate in dye manufacture. 1,2-Dichlorobenzene is also used as an insecticide and a fumigant for controlling peach tree borers, bark beetles, grubs, and termites.

The acute toxicity of 1,2-dichlorobenzene for laboratory animals is slight to moderate by all routes of administration. The dermal LD₅₀ for rabbits is › 10000 mg/kg, and the oral LD₅₀ for rats is 500 ÷ 2138 mg/kg.

The liquid and vapour phases of 1,2-dichlorobenzene are irritating to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Injury of the liver and injury of the kidneys occur at high concentrations. 1,2-dichlorobenzene can cause severe dermatitis, headaches, dizziness, depression of central nervous system and other systemic injury.

Basing on the results obtained after exposure of rats to 1,2-dichlorobenzene per os in dose of 100 mg/kg body (LOAEL) weight for 3 months, which caused injury of livers, the concentration of 90 mg of 1,2-dichlorobenzene/m³  is proposed as a maximum exposure limit (maximum admissible concentration) with an I (irritation) notation. According to the irritant effect of 1,2-dichlorobenzene, the value of MAC(STEL) 180 mg/m³  is recommended.
A maximum admissible concentration of 90 mg/m³  for 1,2-dichlorobenzene is recommended to protect against eye irritation reported in humans and liver toxicity observed in rats.

1,4-Dichlorobenzene
Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak

1,4-Dichlorobenzene is a white crystalline material with a penetrating, camphoraceous odor. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene has been used as an insecticide and a fumigant for control of mildew and molds and for moth control.
The acute toxicity of 1,4-dichlorobenzene for laboratory animals is low by all routes of administration. The subcutaneous LD₅₀ for rabbit is ›2000 mg/kg, and the oral LD₅₀ for the rat is 1625 ÷ 3863 mg/kg.
The liquid and vapour phases of 1,4-dichlorobenzene are irritating to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Injury of the liver and injury of the kidneys occur at high concentrations. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene can cause severe dermatitis, headaches, dizziness, depression of the central nervous system and other systemic injury.
Basing on the results obtained after exposure of rats to 1,4-dichlorobenzene per os in dose of 188 mg/kg body weight for six months, which caused injury of the kidneys and liver, the concentration of 90 mg of 1,4-dichlorobenzene/m3 is proposed as a maximum exposure limit (maximum admissible concentration) with an I (irritation) notation. According to the irritant effect of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, the value of MAC(STEL) 180 mg/m³ is recommended.
A maximum admissible concentration MAC(TWA) of 90 mg/m³ for 1,4-dichlorobenzene is recommended to protect against eye irritation reported in humans and renal toxicity observed in rats.