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Comparison of hazard evaluation criteria and exposure limit values of laser’s radiation exposition compulsory in Poland and of EU directive 2006/25/EU
Agnieszka Wolska, Piotr Konieczny
The article presents comparison of laser’s radiation hazard evaluation criteria contained in regulation of Ministry of Labour and Social Policy and of EU directive. Authors of article calculated exposure limit values of laser’s radiation exposition for random selected wave length and duration of laser pulse from all kind of eyes and skin damages. Based on this calculations they try to say which document contain rigorous criteria.
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Methyl 2-cyanoacrylate. Documentation
Jerzy K. Piotrowski, Jadwiga A. Szymańska
Methyl 2-cyanoacrylate (MCA) is clear, viscous liquid of characteristic irritating odour. It is used in the production of various kinds of glue and polymers. Information on MCA toxicity in humans is fragmentary. It results from tests on volunteers that MCA of 4,5÷270,0 mg/m3 concentration demonstrates irritating activity on upper airways and eyes mucosa. Longterm exposure to MCA may cause dermatoses. In available literature there are data proving that exposure to MCA may be the cause of occupational asthma. On the other hand, WATCH (Working Group on the Assessment of Toxic Chemicals) think that MCA and ECA should not be considered as asthmogenic factors. Their opinion finds confirmation in the results of epidemi-ologic studies on the dependence between the prevalence of occupational asthma and the range of the exposure to cyanoacrylates. No increased risk of incidence of asthma was found among subjects exposed to acrylates. In experiments on animals MCA demonstrates low toxicity. DL50 for rats after administration into alimentary tract was within the limit: 1600÷3200 mg/kg. After inhalatory exposure of rats throughout 12 weeks, only the decrease of body mass was observed after a dose of 141 mg/m³. In the occupational conditions exposure can occur by inhalation and skin. MCA metabolises to formaldehyde and cyanoacetate and then to cyanide and thiocyanate. In majority of countries the accepted NDS value is 2 ppm (8÷9,2 mg/m³) and NDSCh value - 4 ppm (16÷18 mg/m³). In 1997 ACGIH decreased NDS value to 0,2 ppm (1 mg/m³). The base were the results of studies which demonstrated that at the concentration of 2 ppm irritating activity of MCA on nasal mucosa was observed in the examined volunteers.
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2-N-Dibutylaminoethanol. Documentation
Małgorzata Kupczewska-Dobecka, Marek Dobecki
2-N-Dibutylaminoethanol (DBAE) is a colorless, combustible liquid with a faint aminelike odor. DBAE is used in industry as an emulsifying, flotation, and curing agent; dispersant and absorbent. DBAE produced necrosis within 24 hours when applied to the skin of rabbits, and when instilled in the eye of rabbits, it produced corneal necrosis. DBAE, as well as other alkyl-substituted 2-aminoethanols, inhibits cholinesterase in vitro. DBAE has been shown to produce convulsions and neuromuscular blockage resulting in respiratory arrest in rats. Other effects of DBAE exposure include increased gastric motility and secretory activity, decreased respiratory and heart rates, shedding of bloody tears, and excessive salivation. Exposure of 50 rats, 6 hours/day for 27 weeks at 156.2 mg/m³ DBAE resulted in no differences in the variables measured compared with controls. Based on this NOAEL value and three uncertainity factors, the TWA value of 14 mg/m³ is recommended for DBAE. This value is intended to minimize the potential for eye, nasal irritation and cholinergic effects. A Skin notation is recommended, based on the dermal LD50 of DBAE reported for rabbits. Data are not sufficient to recommend STEL.
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Allyl glycidyl ether. Documentation
Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak
Allyl glycidyl ether (AGE) is a colorless, flammable liquid with a characteristic, but not unpleasant, aldehyde-like odor. The primary use of AGE is as a reactive diluent and as a resin intermediate. It is also employed as a stabilizer of chlorinated compounds, vinyl resins, and rubber. The predominant sign of intoxication after oral administration was depression of the central nervous system. A single topical or repeated application to intact rabbit skin produced moderate local irritation. Liquid AGE instilled into the eyes of rabbits produced severe but reversible conjunctivitis, iritis, and corneal opacity. Exposure to AGE caused slight respiratory distress. At necropsy, the lungs showed bronchopneumonia, emphysema, bronchiectasis, pneumonitis, and hemorrhage. Other findings were mottled discoloration of the liver and enlarged adrenal glands. Dermatitis, consisting of itching, swelling, and blister formation, and sensitization have been reported by workers exposed to AGE vapor and/or liquid. AGE is genotoxic, mutagenic but not fetotoxic or teratogenic. Based on the LOAEL value from an inhalation study in rats and mice a TWA value of 6 mg/m³ was proposed. A STEL value of 12 mg/m³ and "A" notation (sensitising substance) are recommended.
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2-Phenoxyethanol. Documentation
Andrzej Starek
2-Phenoxyethanol (PE) is a oil consistency liquid, soluble in both water and organic solvents. It is used as a solvent for cellulose, dyes, pigments, plastificators, and ingredient of many industrial products. There are no data available on PE toxicity in humans. The acute toxicity of PE in laboratory animals is low. In animals repeatable treated with this chemical, depression of CNS, intravascular hemolysis, and kidney disturbances were observed. No mutagenic, embriotoxic, fetotoxic, and teratogenic effects have been found in relevant studies. There are no available literature data on PE carcinogenic activity. Based on the NOAEL value (400 mg/kg/day, per os) for hemolytic effect in a subchronic experiment in rats and the relevant uncertainty factors, a MAC (TWA) value was calculated at 233 mg/m³ and proposed at level of 230 mg/m³. No MAC (STEL) value has been established.
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Aluminum. Documentation
Andrzej Sapota, Marzenna Nasiadek
Aluminum (Al) is a silver-white metal with the atomic weight of 26.98 and melting temperature of 660.4oC. The earth’s crust contains about 8% aluminum. Aluminum production consists in electrolysis of aluminum oxide (Al2 O3). Aluminum is used to produce household equipment and various utensils, as well as chemical appliances, aircraft, motor vehicles, in metallurgy, to cover the surface of telescope mirrors, in decorative wrapping paper and packaging. Powdered metal is used in laboratories as a reduction factor in the manufacturing explosive materials, paints, pigments and in welding with Goldschmidt’s method. Occupational exposure occurs during aluminum production, in welding technologies, as well as in manufacturing final aluminum products. Data concerning acute toxicity in humans are not available. However, prolonged occupational exposure of humans to aluminum dusts results in changes in the respiratory system. The following changes have been observed: fibrosis and granuloma in the lungs, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, chronic interstital pneumonia and bronchitis. Several studies devoted to occupational exposure of humans to aluminum dusts showed an increase in the number of cases of fibrosis in the lungs in relation to the concentration of respirable fraction of Al dusts in the air. The Al dust effect resulting in fibrosis was also demonstrated in several experiments conducted on laboratory animals. In some studies an attempt to assess disorders in the nervous system in employees exposed to aluminum fumes and dusts were undertaken. However, data concerning such Al action are not sufficient. None of the studies confirmed lesions of organic impairment in central and peripheral nervous systems. Aluminum does not show mutagenic, genotoxic, embryotoxic, or carcinogenic and teratogenic effect. Due to the fact that occupational exposure to aluminum dusts and fumes is very complex, and includes other compounds causing pneumoconiosis, the calculated value of TLV-TWA should, in our opinion, encompass aluminum concentration both in respirable fraction of Al dust, as well as in total dust. The study chosen as a basis for calculating a TLV-TWA value showed that in 53 cases of humans exposed to aluminum dusts at concentrations ranging from 1.4 to 10 mg/m³ of respirable fraction 1 case of lung fibrosis and 3 cases of slight changes in the lungs suggesting an initial phase of fibrosis were diagnosed. The increase in concentration of respirable fraction above 10 mg/m³ (from 10 to 100 mg/m³) contributed to an increase of ob-served cases of fibrosis in the lungs. The concentration of 10 mg/m³ (respirable fraction) was accepted as a LOAEL value. To calculate the TLV-TWA value four insecurity factors were chosen. The resulting TLV-TWA value equals 2.5 mg/m³, which was accepted for aluminum included in total dust. On the other hand, the TLV-TWA value for respirable dust constitutes approximately 50% of the calculated value for total dust, that is about 1.2 mg/m³ (fumes and respirable dust). These TLV-TWA values should protect employees occupationally exposed to aluminum fumes and dusts against fibrosis or similar changes in their respiratory system, which might result from exposure to Al accompanying various processes of producing and transforming aluminum, as well as other compounds causing pneumoconiosis or fibrosis in the lungs. There is no basis to determine biological tolerance value at the work-place (BAT value). Due to the fact that the irritating effect of fumes and dusts occurs only in the case of prolonged exposure there are no reasons to determine the value of STEL.
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2,2-Bis (4-hydroxyphentyl) propane. Documentation
Jadwiga A. Szymańska, Barbara Frydrych
2,2-Bis (4-hydroxyphentyl) propane (Bisphenol-A, BPA) is a solid substance found in the form of flakes or crys-tals of delicate phenol odour. It is obtained in the reaction of phenol with acetone, at low pH, at high temperature and with catalysts. This compound is used in the production of different kinds of resins, fire retardants and as fungicide. Occupational exposure to BPA can be associated with its production and application. In the available literature there are no data on suicidal or accidental intoxication caused by application of bisphenol-A through the alimentary tract or by skin. The only information on the toxic action of BPA after short exposure concerns only subjects exposed by inhalation. These subjects complained of a bitter taste in the mouth, headache and nausea. Long-term exposure to BPA may cause the development of dermatoses.
Acute toxicity of BPA in animals is low. The DL50 value of this substance is within the limit of 1.6-5.2 g/kg b.w. Exposure of rabbits to high doses of BPA resulted in eye and skin irritation of different intensity. In mice and rats PNS depression and passive hyperaemia of various internal organs were observed. Repeated inhalatory exposure of rats to BPA resulted in reversible lesions in upper airways. Hyperplasia of upper airway epithelium was observed at the concentrations 50-150 mg/m³. The concentration of 10 mg/m³, when changes were not observed, was accepted as a NOAEL value. Chronic toxicity was investigated in a few animal species: mice, rats and dogs. Intragastric administration of BPA caused, first of all, inhibition of the increase of body weight as compared to the control group, increase in liver mass, breathing disorders, dehydration, diarrhoea and death. In the available literature there is no on the carcinogenic activity of BPA in humans. The data on such activity in animals were found only in one experiment. Exposure lasting 103 weeks did not demonstrate any changes proving carcinogenic activity of BPA. Negative results were also obtained in tests estimating mutagenic activity. According to numerous authors, the main toxic action of BPA lies in the harmful effect of this substance on reproduction. It is associated with the mechanism of BPA action. Basing on in vitro studies BPA was found to bind with estrogenic receptors; however, data concerning embriotoxic action and the effect on reproduction are not explicit. Bisphenol-A is metabolised in animal bodies to glucoronide and in this form it is eliminated with urine. However, faeces are the main route of elimination – in this way (regardless of the way of administration) 50-80% of the dose is excreted in an unchanged form. Bisphenol-A MAC value at the level of 5 mg/m³ was established on the basis of the toxic action of the compound on upper airway epithelium of laboratory animals. The bispheno-A MAC (STEL) value was determined at the level of 10 mg/m³. The standard values were marked "I" - a substance of irritating activity.
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Methyl formate. Documentation
Dobrosława Gradecka, Sławomir Czerczak
Methyl formate is a colorless liquid with a characteristic odour. After single or repeated inhalation exposure the main effect is local irritation. This chemical is also a nervous system depressant. Based on the LOAEL value obtained from an experiment on guinea pigs (3690 mg/m³) a MAC value of 100 mg/m³ was established. Because of the irritant effect of this compound a MAC- STEL value 200mg/m³ has been suggested. The "I" (irritating substance) notation has been proposed.
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Paraffin. Documentation
Jadwiga A. Szymańska, Barbara Frydrych
Paraffin is a mixture of saturated solid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It is a white or colourless mass, odourless, tasteless, insoluble in water and ethanol but soluble in benzene, chloroform and ether. Paraffin is purified chemically, decolourised with the use of proper adsorbents and fractionated through distillation and recrystallisation obtaining waxes of different properties. Paraffin is used in candlemaking, impregnating matches, producing waxed paper, coating food products, manufacturing floor polishes, electrical insulators, and in extracting ethereal oils from flowers. It is also used in medicine as an obliteration agent and in plastic surgery. The literature data on paraffin toxicity is scarce and not explicit. Most authors classify this substance as non-toxic. On the other hand, however, it is said that staying in rooms where the concentration of paraffin smoke reaches 0.6 ÷ 1 mg/m³ (inhalatory exposure) causes a feeling of discomfort. The most frequent effect of human exposure to paraffin (injection) are changes described in literature as granulomas. Lethal and toxic doses of paraffin are within the limit of 120 ÷ 660 mg/kg b.w. The effects of paraffin toxic activity were observed only in F-344 rats. A 60-day alimentary tract exposure of these rats to paraffin in a 2% (20 000 ppm) dose caused a significant increase of the activity of liver enzymes and the appearance of vacuoles filled with paraffin in Browicz-Kupffer cells. An increase in paraffin concentration was not found in other examined animals, e.g., in Sprague-Dawley rat strain or in dogs. In the available literature, there are no reliable data on paraffin cancerigenic activity. It is not known what happens to paraffin in a body. However, paraffin is thought to be nondigestible and nonabsorptive. The value of the highest acceptable concentration (MAC) for paraffin smoke was determined on the basis of information obtained from workplaces where paraffin concentration was found to be 0.6 ÷ 2.0 mg/m³. Subjects exposed to paraffin concentration of 0.6 ÷ 1.0 mg/m³ complained of discomfort and nausea. In another workplace subjects exposed to paraffin concentration of 2 mg/m³ did not complain. The concentration of paraffin smoke of 2 mg/m³ was accepted a MAC value. There is no basis for establishing a paraffin MAC (STEL) value.
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Thiram. Documentation
Paweł Strusiński
Thiram (tetramethylthiuram disulfide) is a dithiocarbamate compound widely used as an agricultural fungicide, accelerator in the rubber industry, seed disinfectant, a lubricating oil additive, animal repellent, and ingredient of medicated soaps and antiseptic sprays. Currently the compound is not manufactured in Poland, but it is used in the chemical industry and in agriculture. Thiram has a low toxicity to humans and laboratory animals – studies have reported oral LD50 for rodents as high as 4000 mg/kg b.w., but for cats and sheep only 200 mg/kg b.w. Dermal LD50 values usually exceed 2000 mg/kg b.w. The following manifestations were reported in humans exposed to thiram: skin irritation with erythema and urticaria, conjunctivitis, mucous membrane irritation, upper respiratory tract irritation, ocular irritation, coughing, headache and fatigue. Chronic exposure to thiram may lead to liver and neurological dysfunction and anaemia. It is worth noting that thiram is a potent inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase and, thus, induces alcohol intolerance like Antabuse (disulfiram). Recently, the debate has intensified because of the growing number of allergic contact dermatitis cases caused by thiram present in products like latex gloves. Most assays have shown that thiram does not elicit genotoxic and carcinogenic action. It has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) into group 3. Only high, maternally toxic doses cause embryotoxic and teratogenic activity of thiram. The substance impairs laboratory animals’ fertility by disrupting the hormonal control of ovulation and affecting the spermatogenesis. Thiram is easily absorbed by respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, distributed in all organs and rapidly eliminated from the body. The recommended maximum exposure limit (MAC) for thiram of 0.5 mg/m³ is based on two NOAEL values (0.4 and 0.04 mg/m³) derived from chronic feeding studies in beagles and relevant uncertainty factors. No STEL and BEI values have been proposed. The substance has "I" (irritant), "A" (sensitizer) and "Ft" (fetotoxic) notations.
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