Ergonomics and Quality Management-Humans in Interaction With Technology, Work Environment, and Organization Jörgen A.E. Eklund , 143-160 Ergonomics Oriented to Processes Becomes a Tool for Continuous Improvement Robert L. Getty and Juliet M. Getty, 161-194 Flexible Management System for Occupational Safety and Quality Annett Grossmann and Hans Martin, 195-215 Macroergonomic Analysis and Design for Improved Safety and Quality Performance Brian M. Kleiner, 217-245 Synergism of Ergonomics, Safety, and Quality-A Behavioral Cybernetic Analysis Thomas J. Smith, 247-278 Safety and Quality Issues as Part of a Holistic (i.e., Sociotechnological) Approach Klaus J. Zink, 279-290 Ergonomics and Work Organization: the Relationship Between Tayloristic Design and Workers' Health in Banks and Credit Cards Companies Laerte I. Sznelwar, Fausto L. Mascia, Mauro Zilbovicius, Glauco Arbix, 291-301 Macroergonomics and Total Quality Management: How to Improve Quality of Working Life? Pascale Carayon, François Sainfort, Michael J. Smith, 303-334

Ergonomics and Quality Management-Humans in Interaction With Technology, Work Environment, and Organization
Jörgen A.E. Eklund

In many studies, ergonomics has been shown to influence human performance. The aim of this paper was to demonstrate important ergonomics influences on quality in industrial production, from the perspective of interactions between humans, technology, organization, and work environment. A second aim was to elaborate on the implications of these findings for the development of quality management strategies. This paper shows that ergonomics problems in terms of adverse work environmental conditions, inappropriate design of technology, and an unsuitable organization are important causes of quality deficiencies. Problem solving aimed at improving ergonomics, quality, and productivity simultaneously is likely to obtain support from most of the interest parties of the company, and may also enhance participation. Ergonomics has the potential of becoming a driving force for the development of new quality management strategies.

Ergonomics Oriented to Processes Becomes a Tool for Continuous Improvement
Robert L. Getty and Juliet M. Getty

A holistic view is essential for quality initiatives such as Total Quality Management (TQM), Standard No. ISO 9001:1994 (International Organization for Standardization [ISO], 1994) Concurrent Engineering, Business Reengineering, and Business Process Improvement. The challenge is knowing how to transition from this theoretical concept to implementation. The relationship between quality interest and an ergonomics program will be the focus of this discussion. An ergonomics oriented improvement program includes (a) ergonomics or fitting the job to the person; (b) integration of operations management, safety engineering, medical management, and employees as co-owners of the process; (c) the emphasis of ergonomic precepts in the engineering of new processes and improvement of current processes; and (d) the emphasis of employees taking responsibility for their own well being and the improvement of their work environment. The parallel between the continuous improvement process delineated by the quality-system requirements in Standard No. ISO 9001:1994 (ISO, 1994) and the improvement contributions of ergonomics are very revealing (Getty, Abbott, & Getty, 1995). It is the contention of this approach that if the precepts of ergonomics were applied to the work environment, it would support the objective of world class quality and productivity, resulting in improved global competitiveness of businesses.

Flexible Management System for Occupational Safety and Quality
Annett Grossmann and Hans Martin

In the 10 analysed companies it is necessary to create a management for flexible processes and a structured flexibilisation of these processes. This represents the basis for the retention of existing flexibility and occupational safety.
The strategy for a management of flexible processes leads,

- firstly, to a structuring of company procedures whilst still retaining the
  necessary flexibility and certification ability as laid down by standards
  No. DIN EN ISO 9000ff. and,
- secondly, to the keeping of the demands of an occupational safety management
  system.

In this article the inclusion of co-workers stands in the foreground. This will be combined with the goal to utilise their experience and their acceptance of the solutions worked out.

Macroergonomic Analysis and Design for Improved Safety and Quality Performance
Brian M. Kleiner

Macroergonomics, which emerged historically after sociotechnical systems theory, quality management, and ergonomics, is presented as the basis for a needed integrative methodology. A macroergonomics methodology was presented in some detail to demonstrate how aspects of microergonomics, total quality management (TQM), and sociotechnical systems (STS) can be triangulated in a common approach. In the context of this methodology, quality and safety were presented as 2 of several important performance criteria. To demonstrate aspects of the methodology, 2 case studies were summarized with safety and quality performance results where available. The first case manipulated both personnel and technical factors to achieve a "safety culture" at a nuclear site. The concept of safety culture is defined in INSAG-4 (International Atomic Energy Agency, 1991). as "that assembly of characteristics and attitudes in organizations and individuals which establishes that, as an overriding priority, nuclear plant safety issues receive the attention warranted by their significance." The second case described a tire manufacturing intervention to improve quality (as defined by Sink and Tuttle, 1989) through joint consideration of technical and social factors. It was suggested that macroergonomics can yield greater performance than can be achieved through ergonomic intervention alone. Whereas case studies help to make the case, more rigorous formative and summative research is needed to refine and validate the proposed methodology respectively.

Synergism of Ergonomics, Safety, and Quality-A Behavioral Cybernetic Analysis
Thomas J. Smith

This report extends a control systems or cybernetic model of behavior to the behavior of groups of many individuals-organizations and institutions-operating together with technology as complex sociotechnical (ST) systems. The premise is that the level of quality in performance of a complex ST system is predicated upon the degree to which its organizational design incorporates elements of a closed-loop behavioral control system: control goals and objectives sensory receptors, sensory feedback, learning and memory, effectors, and sensory feedback control. From a control systems perspective, ergonomics is essential to effective organizational self-regulation. If working conditions are poorly designed, work performance and safety and quality outcomes cannot be closely controlled. Conversely, as shown by field evidence, good design promotes synergism between ergonomics, safety, and quality as a closed-loop consequence of effective employee and organizational self-control of system performance, safety, and quality.

Safety and Quality Issues as Part of a Holistic (i.e., Sociotechnological) Approach
Klaus J. Zink

In the past, many so-called management concepts were not very successful because of their fragmented approach. This is also true for topics like safety and quality. Here, technical aspects often predominated while disregarding the equally important need for a change of attitude. On the other hand, awareness was created by timely limited programmes. The paper deals with integrating quality and safety in holistic (management) concepts, which are described first before being discussed in detail.

Ergonomics and Work Organization: the Relationship Between Tayloristic Design and Workers' Health in Banks and Credit Cards Companies
Laerte I. Sznelwar, Fausto L. Mascia, Mauro Zilbovicius, Glauco Arbix

The discussion developed in this paper is based on the results of an ergonomic work analysis carried out with attendants at call centers. Some critical issues and difficulties, like working pace, inadequate tools and workstations, and software inadequacies were detected in working situations. Operator-customer interactions are presented, attempting to put in evidence working constraints, working conditions, and their connection with health problems.
The main conclusion is that serving clients, especially when the job is to provide information, is not a simple task, as information is not always available in the computerized system and is completely fragmented. The scope of workers' actions is very restricted and complicated and recurrent requests are redirected to others. Workers (individually or as groups) have limited possibilities to make adjustments to be able to give more adequate and personalized treatment to clients and, at the same time, to work in a less stressful environment. In periods of increased workload and work intensification, the situation is very much favorable to the incidence of health disorders, such as work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD) and others. Some suggestions to improve the work situation are discussed.

Macroergonomics and Total Quality Management: How to Improve Quality of Working Life?
Pascale Carayon, François Sainfort, Michael J. Smith

In this paper, we present a macroergonomic model of work design that is applied and tested to examine Total Quality Management (TQM) in the public sector. According to the model, TQM can influence different aspects of work design and quality of working life (QWL). Questionnaire data collected in 2 public sector organizations in the USA show that TQM can have both positive and negative impact on work design and QWL. The main positive impact of TQM was found on job content, job control and participation, and social relationships. The main negative impact of TQM was on workload, uncertainty, and clarity of job duties. The impact of TQM on QWL was mixed. Our results show that the impact of TQM on work design and QWL varied very much across the 6 participating departments, as well as within the departments. Further research is warranted to assess the human impact of TQM, in particular research on the linkage between various aspects of TQM, on one hand, and work design and QWL, on the other hand.